Food and Drink

The Buddhist Monk's Discipline: Some Points Explained for Laypeople, by Bhikkhu Khantipalo

RPerhaps one of the best-known training rules of the bhikkhu concerns his not eating between midday and dawn: it is an offense for him even to touch food — let alone eat it — during this period, which is called the "wrong-time." Lay-people keeping the eight precepts upon Uposatha days or at other times have basically the same discipline. As the sixth precept they recite: "I undertake the training rule refraining from eating at the wrong time." A samanera (novice) has also to keep this precept every day while he commits himself to observe the ten training rules for novices. It has many advantages both for the bhikkhu and samanera, as well as for lay-people. The former benefit since they have free time, thoughts not concerned with food, and lightness of the body, which is suitable for study, meditation, and so on. As for the latter, they are not burdened by having to prepare food for bhikkhus at night.

Although not included among the heavy offenses, this training rule (an offense of expiation) will not be broken by the scrupulous bhikkhu (unless ill), since its breaking implies giving way to craving, losing the spirit of renunciation, encumbering the stomach, and hence making mind-development more, not less, difficult.

The "right time" for bhikkhus (and samaneras) to eat begins when the day is light enough to see the lines on the palms of one's hand and ends at noon. During this time a bhikkhu may eat once15 or twice. If the former, then an adequate quantity of food is needed to last for twenty-four hours, while if he eats twice the second meal is usually served about quarter past eleven so as to finish well before noon.

There are very few dietary restrictions and these are reasonable, ruling out the consumption of certain animals' flesh (for instance, dogs', snakes', tigers', bears', hyenas') and also that of human beings. Here we may briefly consider the question of meat in relation to the bhikkhu. The word bhikkhu is derived from the root bhikkh = "to beg" (this English word is from the same Indo-Aryan root). Although a bhikkhu, when he goes out to obtain almsfood, does not beg (he collects what is offered), since he is not allowed (unless ill) to ask for food, still he is largely dependent upon whatever is put into his bowl. After he has returned to the vihara he may if he wishes, select whatever vegetable foods he has been given and eat only that. In this respect it is proper to remember that when Devadatta requested Lord Buddha for a ruling that bhikkhus should abstain from flesh, the latter did not agree to rule thus, saying: "And the eating of flesh that is pure in three respects, that is to say, that the eater has not seen, heard, or suspected that it has been killed (specially for bhikkhus) is allowable." (Flesh and fish allowable must, however, be cooked as bhikkhus cannot eat any kind raw or uncooked.) There is also the Discourse to Jivaka on the same subject and the oft-quoted Amagandha Discourse, in which the evils of ill-conduct in so many ways are pointed out as much more harmful than the eating of meat.

We may summarize by saying that as far as his alms-round is concerned, a bhikkhu receives whatever is offered without discrimination (except the unallowable meats, which he is not very likely to be given nowadays). If he wishes to be a vegetarian, he may choose from among the food placed in his bowl, although where he receives only little, this will be very difficult for him. In any case, whether almsfood or that brought to the vihara by lay-supporters, he cannot ask for this or that kind of food unless he is ill, when it is allowable to do so. In countries where the almsround is not possible, a bhikkhu or a sangha of bhikkhus will be dependent upon laypeople who agree to give support. Where a number of bhikkhus are staying, laypeople will organize the buying, cooking, and offering of food in the way most convenient to them and in accordance with the Vinaya. There is no need for food offered by them to be special but it should be nutritious. Therefore, laypeople should not ask, "Do you like...?" or "What shall we cook for you today...?" The bhikkhu tradition is to accept whatever laypeople wish to offer from the food they have themselves, in this way being as little trouble as possible to householders, of whom it is as true now as it was in Lord Buddha's days, that they have "a lot to do" (bahukiccam).

A bhikkhu cannot go to a restaurant or shop and buy or order food (or anything else for that matter). Nor can he personally store food overnight. Once food has been formally offered (see below) to him, it must be consumed by him before noon, or else left for lay-people to finish. Again, a bhikkhu cannot cook for himself (although he is allowed to reheat food cooked already). Storing or cooking may, however, be done by a samanera or by a lay-disciple in the vihara. The principle underlying these three training rules is that greed, ever-ready to spring up where food is concerned, should of course be discouraged, while the bhikkhu's dependence upon lay-people is greatly stressed. He is taught to reflect everyday: "'My life is dependent upon others' — this should frequently be reflected on by one gone forth" (Discourse on the Ten Conditions, AN 10.48).

We should now deal briefly with the formal offering of food and other items to bhikkhu. It is a slight offense for a bhikkhu intentionally to touch — let alone consume — food or drinks which have not been offered. The reason lying behind this rule is not difficult to see. A bhikkhu is always very careful to avoid any act which could even be interpreted as approaching an offense of defeat. Taking what is not given with intent to steal is a defeat-offense and, even if he has not fallen completely into this, he may have a grave offense to confess. Hence the importance of formal offering. This offering is done by placing into his hands every item to be consumed, except these things be on a tray when this may be offered. A layman raises from the table, plates, and dishes (or tray) bearing food with both hands, or with the left hand touching the right wrist when the item concerned is a small one (as salt-cellars etc.), and gives each one into the hands of the bhikkhu. If there are a number of bhikkhus, the most senior is offered food first and the others in due order afterwards. It is not necessary to offer food into the hands of samaneras as this training rule does not apply to them. Having completed the offering (to each bhikkhu) a layman will usually salute with añjali and then take a seat a little to one side, waiting to see whether he can be of any further help. He should not, after having placed the food into the hands of bhikkhus, touch it again; if he does so, that food or drink must be re-offered, Should he receive anything from the hands of a bhikkhu, whether it is food or such things as paper or books etc., it is again skillful training for the layman to salute with añjali before taking it.

Due to the training rules above, bhikkhus cannot share food from the same dishes as those being used by laypeople and it is customary to give them their food apart. In a family this could be just one end of the table, while in any lay assembly where many are dining, bhikkhus should have a table specially set aside for them. Samaneras, since they do not have the acceptance into the Sangha as bhikkhus, cannot share food with the latter and should be given separate food; they traditionally eat sitting elsewhere. As honored guests in the houses of lay-people, bhikkhus are offered their food before the family sits down to eat or, when there is not time for this, their food is first formally offered to them before the others eat. Since it is an offense for a bhikkhu to eat or drink standing, he should always be offered a seat. He cannot therefore take food buffet-style, since eating is for him a serious matter, a meditation and not an occasion for delight or gossip.

So far we have referred to a layman offering the food but the case is different when a lay-woman makes the offering. A bhikkhu does not receive anything directly from the hands of a woman, but she may place whatever is to be offered upon the small receiving-cloth which a bhikkhu carries. Once she has placed it upon this cloth, it is considered to be offered into his hands.16 In formulating such ways of conduct as these the theras of the first Sangayana (Council) have been most careful to guard against physical contact between the sexes so that no possibility of slander or of infatuation might arise. One may here remember the opening suttas of Anguttara Nikaya: "O bhikkhus, I do not perceive at all any other form which thus stands taking hold of the mind of man as does this: the form of woman... sound... scent... taste... the touch of woman. O bhikkhus, I do not perceive at all any other form which thus stands taking hold of the mind of woman as does this: the form of man, sound, scent, taste, touch of man." These words of Lord Buddha find practical expression in the Vinaya training rules for both bhikkhus and for bhikkhunis (when they existed).

As regards placing food into a bhikkhu's bowl which is in his hands, whether he is standing, as on the alms-round, or sitting in a layman's house, there is no difference between the way it is done by a layman and a laywoman. Nor does the bowl have to be offered to him since it is in his hands.17

Other articles besides food and drink which should be offered to him include anything which will go inside the body, such as medicines. Also, his bowl, robes, and other requisites, if they are touched by laypeople, as these are then considered to be out of his possession. Upon occasions of making puñña when bhikkhus are invited, the gifts which are offered to them by the laity such as flowers, incense, candles, medicines, and any other items useful for their lives, may also be formally offered. If such an occasion is during the "wrong-time" and laypeople wish to offer food in tins or jars (milk is included) these things cannot be placed into his hands or accepted by him, but intimation is made to the bhikkhus of its offering and it is put aside to be kept by a samanera or lay-disciple. Such small points as these constitute not only a discipline for bhikkhus but also for the laity who may thereby grow in carefulness.

It was emphasized above that offering, whether by a layman or laywoman, is made with both hands. This is not simply some sort of ritual but has a very good reason behind it. When one gives something in the ordinary way, the giving is done with one hand if the object permits it. This kind of giving may as a fact become habitual in the sense that one is not aware any more of "giving" and from a Buddhist point of view this shows slackness of mind and lack of care. Now, bhikkhus who are striving on the Path of Dhamma-Vinaya are said to be a "good field for puñña" — that is, the results to be expected from giving to them as they strive towards Nibbana, leading a pure life, are great indeed, and will result in clarity and peace increasing in the hearts of the donors. Thus it becomes important when making offerings to bhikkhus, whether of their daily food or upon some special occasion, to make the offering consciously, with a strong intention of giving. The stronger the intention, which is here skillful kamma, the greater the fruits of happiness reaped by the donors. So that laypeople are reminded to make this giving-intention strong, they are instructed to offer with both hands — an act which requires more forethought than the usual ways of giving. Respect is also expressed in this method of offering and it is also used by new bhikkhus and samaneras when presenting anything to their teachers or preceptors.

The meal having been consumed, a bhikkhu chants briefly (and a number of bhikkhus for some time) verses of well-wishing for the laity. It is actually an offense of wrong-doing for him (them) not to do so if laypeople are present. The least which is done will be for a senior bhikkhu to say a few words such as: "Long-life and beauty, happiness, and strength" (ayu vanno sukham balam). Whether laypeople have also finished eating, or whether they have not yet begun, at least the donor will sit quietly with folded hands listening to these words or verses of well-wishing. Every word of the Pali verses may not be understood but it is more important that the mind should be concentrated upon the chanting to the exclusion of everything else. A mindful and concentrated mind is always full of skillfulness. Frequently, such chants as are translated below form the core of well-wishing:

Just as the rivers full of water
Fill the ocean full,
Even so does that here given
Benefit the dead (the hungry-ghosts, peta)
Whatever by you wished or wanted
May it quickly be,
May all your wishes fulfilled —
As the moon upon the fifteenth day, (the full moon)
Or as the wish-fulfilling gem.

May all distresses be averted
May all diseases be destroyed
May no dangers be for them
May (they) be happy, living long.
He of respectful nature who
Even the elders honoring,
Four Qualities for him increase:
Long-life and beauty, happiness, and strength.
At the close of the chanting it is the custom in many places to say "Sadhu, sadhu..." and then to raise the hands in añjali to the forehead, to lower the body. "Sadhu" means "it is well," and is an expression of delighted approval heard everywhere in Buddhist countries when a deed of puñña has been done, such as giving, helping, listening to Dhamma, and so forth.

As regards drinking, a bhikkhu may not drink distilled or fermented intoxicants (sura-meraya-majja) (except minute quantities contained in necessary medicines). Before noon any other drink may be offered to him, with or without milk. After twelve o'clock noon it is not allowable for him to take milk (or any drink containing milk), cereals, eggs, etc., nor any kind of soup. He may be offered any fruit juice (uncooked but strained and free from particles of fruit), or any of the bottled soft drinks which are now common. The five medicines allowable over a period of seven days may also be taken by him if he is indisposed. The first of these, ghee, is generally not available outside India, but the other four are common: butter (but not cheese), vegetable oil (such as margarine), honey, molasses (including all sorts of sugar). If more of these is accepted by him than he can consume in one evening, it may be kept by him for seven days at most. Any remaining after this time he cannot consume without falling into an offense. It is thus common for these "medicines" to be kept by a samanera or lay-disciple, to be offered as they are needed. Tea, coffee, and cocoa (all without milk) are also allowable during the afternoon and evening. With these allowable drinks and fortified in any case by having few desires and some ability to endure, bhikkhus (and samaneras) sustain themselves for study, practice or teaching.

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